DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/mila.12476
تاريخ النشر: 2024-01-28
تعريف التأكيد: الالتزام والحقائق
الملخص
وفقًا لرأي مؤثر، فإن تأكيد اقتراح ما يتضمن اتخاذ “التزام” تجاه حقيقة ذلك الاقتراح. لكن الحسابات حول ما يعنيه أن يكون الشخص ملتزمًا بحقيقة اقتراح ما غالبًا ما تكون غامضة أو غير دقيقة، ونادرًا ما يتم استخدامها لتعريف التأكيد. تهدف هذه الورقة إلى سد هذه الفجوة. تقدم تعريفًا دقيقًا للالتزام التأكيدي، وتطبقه لتعريف التأكيد. وفقًا للرأي المقترح، فإن اكتساب الالتزام ليس كافيًا للتأكيد: للتأكيد، يجب أن يتم اكتساب الالتزام من خلال تقديم اقتراح بشكل صريح على أنه صحيح.
1. تعريف التأكيد
2. التأكيد والالتزام
(حساب قائم على الالتزام)
2.1. المساءلة
2.2 المسؤولية الخطابية (DR)
أحضر بروسبيرو بعض البروسيكو.
(3) لا، بروسبيرو أحضر زجاجة من الكيانتي.
(4) كيف تعرف؟
(5) هل هذا صحيح؟
(أ) ما الذي يجعلك تعتقد ذلك؟
(ب) هل هذا صحيح؟
(ج) هل تعرف ذلك حقًا؟
مع أفعال الكلام الأضعف. لتقدير هذه النقطة، قارن بين التخمين (G) والافتراض (A):
(ج) أعتقد أن لوكا قبل مارا عندما عادوا إلى المنزل الليلة الماضية
(أ) لوكا قبل مارا عندما عادوا إلى المنزل الليلة الماضية
(6) أنا أقول جملة
(7) كل الكعكة اللعينة!
زائدة، لأن المتحدث قد أدي بالفعل مسؤولياته الخطابية.
2.3. التزام مزدوج
(7) أراهن أنهما في السرير معًا في هذه اللحظة
من الادعاءات التي أعتبرها قابلة للدفاع ولكنها خاطئة. في هذا السياق، يحق لمتحدثي أن يتحدوا ادعاءاتي، ويتوقعوا مني تقديم حجج لدعم صحتها: أنا مسؤول خطابيًا عن كل من هذه الادعاءات، كما هو مطلوب من (ب). ومع ذلك، سيكون من غير المناسب لومى أو انتقادي بسبب خطأها: الشرط (أ) غير مُرضٍ. يُظهر المثال أن (ب) لا يتضمن (أ)، وأن تحقيق (ب) ليس كافيًا لجعل التأكيد صحيحًا. بشكل عام، يمكن أن ينفصل الشرطان (أ) و(ب): كل واحد منهما يحدد مكونًا مختلفًا من المسؤوليات المميزة التي تولدها التأكيدات.
3. تعريف “مختلط” للتأكيد
3.1 التعبير صراحة عن اقتراح
( CBD) تعريف قائم على الالتزام للتأكيد: المتحدث S يؤكد
3.2 أن تصبح ملتزمًا دون التأكيد
(8) أتعهد بموجب هذا بالالتزام بالاقتراح التالي:
(ص) سقراط لم يوجد أبداً
4.3 تقديم اقتراح على أنه صحيح
(MD) تعريف مختلط للتأكيد: المتحدث
4. اختبار التعريف
4.1 التأكيدات وأفعال الكلام الأخرى
(9) اترك القط وحده!
(10) افترض أن جيف بيزوس هو في الواقع زاحف…
أعتقد أن [خورخي في الحمام]
(14) أنفي أنني كنت حاضرًا في مكان جريمة القتل
(15) أعارض أن [لم أكن حاضرًا في مكان الجريمة]
(16) أصر على أن [لم أكن حاضرًا في مكان الجريمة]
(17) أؤكد أنني لم أكن موجودًا في مكان الجريمة
4.2 الأعذار ومستويات القواعد
أحببت جوسي كثيرًا
[عندما يكون معروفًا بشكل متبادل من قبل جميع الأطراف أن ادعاءً تم تحت ظروف من عدم الكشف عن الهوية، فإن هذا له تأثير مقلل على نوع (التوقعات الناتجة عن التأكيد) التي يحق للمتحدثين والمستمعين أن يتوقعوها من بعضهم البعض (غولدبرغ، 2013، ص.135)
تلعب دورًا مهمًا في دعم توقعات الموثوقية: إن خطر العقوبات يوفر للمتحدث سببًا ذاتيًا لبذل قصارى جهدهم لتأكيد الحقيقة فقط، وهذا بدوره يقلل من تكرار التأكيدات الزائفة. لن يظهر هذا السبب الذاتي عندما يعرف المتحدث المجهول أنهم ليسوا قابلين للعقوبة فعليًا، حيث تأتي في هذه الحالات التحدث زيفًا فعليًا بدون ثمن. عندما يعرف الجمهور أن المتحدث يعرف ذلك، يفقدون سببًا إيجابيًا للثقة في المتحدث (وهو سبب موجود في المحادثات العادية)، وهذا هو ما يقوض (أو على الأقل يقلل) من حق الجمهور المعرفي في أخذ كلمة المتحدث المجهول على محمل الجد.
5. التأكيد، الالتزام، والحقيقة
نظريًا وتجريبيًا (مثل هولمز، 1984؛ كيسين، 2008؛ غيور، 2019؛ مازاريللا وآخرون، 2018؛ فالير، 2019). باختصار، فإن الرؤية المقترحة لديها القدرة على المساعدة في تقدم مجموعة متنوعة من الاستفسارات الأكاديمية الجارية – خاصة في فلسفة اللغة وعلم المعاني، حيث يكون الحديث عن التأكيد شائعًا وغالبًا ما تؤخذ هذه الفكرة كأمر مسلم به، ولكن نادرًا ما يتم شرحها بتفصيل دقيق.
الشكر والتقدير
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Neri Marsili
UNED, Dpto. de Lógica, Historia y Filosofía de la Ciencia
Paseo de Senda del Rey, 7
28040 Madrid | España | Spain
Email: neri@fsof.uned.es
For a discussion of the different connotations that these terms can have in ordinary language, and why these differences are not relevant to theorising about illocutionary force, see Searle and Vanderveken . It is customary for analyses of illocutionary acts to aim at identifying necessary and sufficient conditions. This approach, however, has known limitations (e.g. Rosch 1978; Gupta 2015; Margolis & Laurence 2019, section 2.2, 5.2). While I share some reservations myself, I think that attempting to define assertion in this way can help us better understand this concept, laying some fundamental groundwork for investigating the nature of this speech act and its normative import. Peirce (CP 2.315, 5.29-31,543-547, MS 280.25-26, 517.42-44, 36.104-5); Searle (1969, 1975); Grice (1978, p. 126); Brandom (1983, 1994); Searle & Vanderveken (1985); Green (1999, 2000, 2007, 2017); MacFarlane (2011), Rescorla (2009a); Marsili (2015, 2021); Tanesini (2016, 2019), Peet (2021). With a few exceptions, such as Shapiro (2018), Tanesini (2019), Marsili (2021a); a slightly different distinction is in Green (2007, 2017), an altogether different one is Kissine (2008). For an approach that goes beyond assertoric commitment and that applies across the illocutionary board, see Geurts (2019). This means that other members of the linguistic community are permitted (not obliged) to criticise the speaker for the falsity of their claim. In the rest of the paper, I will sometimes talk of someone being entitled to criticise the speaker, of a criticism being permissible or warranted. These expressions are all meant to track the fact that the criticisms are permissible, given the norms governing the speech act of assertion. By “expectation”, I mean a normative requirement to act in a certain way, comparable to the ones generated by other illocutionary rules. Illocutionary norms are not explicitly agreed-upon rules (unlike the rules of chess or traffic rules), but they are nonetheless implicitly understood, followed and enforced by competent speakers. I elaborate on the status of illocutionary norms and the expectations they generate in Marsili (forthcoming). I am using “show” in a figurative sense, as a shorthand for something like “provides reasons that are good enough to settle that the asserted proposition is true, given the epistemic standards currently accepted in the conversational context” (cf. Rescorla, 2009b). The problem of defining which challenges are appropriate is an independent issue in the literature on discursive commitment: for an overview, Rescorla (2009b). Here I endorsed the view that a challenge to an assertion is appropriate only if it is conveyed by a felicitous question, and that a question felicitous only if its answer is not a settled issue in the conversation. This solution represents a novel approach to a longstanding problem in argumentation theory. For similar reasons, neither accountability nor DR entails that the speaker is obliged to be sincere, or to follow any putative norm of assertion (Rescorla, 2009a): while both kinds of commitments create an agent-dependent reason to be truthful (to avoid sanctions, to be able to meet expectations when challenged), none creates an agent-independent reason to do so. To highlight the difference, MacFarlane (2011) distinguishes between upstream normativity (norms that constrain which actions you are entitled to perform – in our case, which assertions you are entitled to make) and downstream normativity (obligations and entitlements that result from your action – in our case, those falling under the label of “commitments”). It should be noted, however, that some authors (Alston, 2000, chap. 8; Milić, 2015; Reiland, 2020, Section 6) hold that there is a tighter connection between norms of assertion and commitments – for these authors, downstream normativity can be reduced to upstream normativity. - 11 A minority of authors (García-Carpintero, 2018; Viebahn, 2020) allow for indirect assertions. The disagreement here is, I suspect, primarily terminological. I agree that calling some implicata “indirect assertions” may be useful for various theoretical purposes. However, it extends the scope of this term beyond its ordinary meaning, which my definition aims to track.
- 12 My point here is that a definition of assertion need not take a stance on this issue, not that neutrality is a desideratum for its own sake. In fact, some accounts of semantic content will not be apt to define assertion. Theories that define semantic content by appeal to the very notion of assertion (cf. Brandom, 1994) will not do, because this move would lead to circularity. Note, further, that this limitation does not speak against my proposal specifically, for it is shared by any definition that incorporates a criterion to rule out implicata (such as (i) above).
A referee wonders whether condition (i) incorrectly rules in cases in which a speaker produces an utterance without meaning it – as it might happen when an incompetent speaker accidentally produces a meaningful expression in a foreign language. To exclude such cases, condition (ii) can be modified, to require that S undertakes commitment to knowingly and intentionally. However, some theorists want to allow for unintentional assertions (e.g. Kölbel, 2010; cf. Dummett, 1973; 1979, p. 111), and more generally for unintentional performance of any illocutionary act (for a recent overview, McDonald, 2021). I will not take a stance on the matter here, but an additional clause (e.g. knowingly and intentionally) can easily be incorporated into CBD, if deemed appropriate. See Marsili and Green (2021) for elaboration. Here I am treating “putting forward as true” and “presenting as true” as synonymous.
Some theorists (e.g. Barker, 2004; Hanks, 2007; Reiland, 2019; Bronzo, 2021) who reject the force/content distinction deny this. Broadly, they hold that since a proposition involves an act of predication, it can be correct and incorrect. This view, however, is somewhat unorthodox (for objections, see e.g. Green, 2018), and the literature on the nature of assertion tends to operate within the framework that I am adopting (see Marsili & Pagin, 2021). Furthermore, even if we were to accept this unorthodox view, it would at most render the extra requirement redundant (condition (i) would already entail that the content is “presented as true”). The definition would still draw the right distinctions, and correctly differentiate between assertions and other speech acts, by means of the commitment condition. Following Green (2017, 2019) and Marsili (2018a, pp. 464-5), correctness and success are here regarded as properties of the speech act. This is not to deny that these notions apply to speakers too. If Bob falsely claims that Gianni is drunk, his assertion (the act) is incorrect. But we can also derivatively say, of Bob, that he was incorrect or wrong about Gianni’s state. Presenting as true is here characterised in reference to the first sense, or incorrectness of the act: to present as true is to perform a speech act that we would call “incorrect” if is false, and that we would call “correct” (and successful) only if is true. Similarly for the notion of success: what matters is whether the assertion meets its presumed goal (describing reality), not whether it meets the goal of the speaker (which might be different, e.g. telling a lie).
For elaboration, see Green (2017) on “liability” and Marsili 2018 on assertoric aims and success-conditions. Wright (1992, p. 24) claims that it is a platitude that assertions present their content as true. Perhaps, defenders of “simple commitment views” did not include this requirement in their definitions simply because it is platitudinous (cf. Marsili & Green 2021, p.26). This might be, but the addition proposed here would still be significant: it brings to light an important requirement that is otherwise left implicit, and shows how it can handle the objections raised by Pagin (2004, 2009).
A referee wonders if the “presenting as true” condition makes the accountability requirement redundant. Pagin’s example shows that the two notions are not coextensive: the speaker of (8) is accountable for a proposition they have not presented as true. Still, it might be that whenever you present a proposition as true, you are accountable for it. This conjecture has some plausibility. If it is correct, the accountability requirement could in principle be excised from the definition without threatening its intensional adequacy. But this would not make MD any simpler (since “accountability” is required only indirectly, through condition (iii)), and the analysis of commitment provided in Section 2 would be no less valuable, since both conditions are still needed if one aims to characterise assertoric commitment. Some other challenges would be warranted in this context, such as “Why did you make that conjecture?” or “What makes you think that?”. Indeed, virtually every speech act warrants challenges of this kind, but this is beyond the point. Only the availability of challenges to the veracity of the speaker’s claim is evidence that the speaker is discursively responsible, as discussed in Section 2.2
For more on the relationship between assertion and other representative speech acts, see Searle (1976, pp. 5,10), Searle and Vanderveken (1985), and Labinaz (2018), who consider how different representative illocutions yield different degrees of commitment. For how commitment accounts can handle hedges and mitigation, see for example Coates (1987) and Krifka (2019). I discuss these matters in Marsili (2014, pp. 165-7, 2015, pp. 124-5, 2018b, pp. 179-180, 2021a, pp. 3262-3). Note that “How do you know?” challenges are “redundant” in this context, given that the answer is already common ground. But this does not mean that DR is not satisfied (see Section 2.2).
Here “directly” is opposed to “indirect” illocutions, like implicatures and indirect speech acts, cf. Searle and Vanderveken (1985, pp. 129-30). See also Lewiński (2021). By saying that they are functionally equivalent, I simply mean that an ordinary speaker would regard them as communicating pretty much the same thing. This is not to say that these expressions are fully equivalent, for they are not (see Ripley, 2011).
In fact, I am not aware of any existing definition that gives this verdict – nor of one that, unlike mine, would not classify (13-16) as assertions. Reviewing each existing account to prove this point would lead us astray, but the reader can refer to MacFarlane (2011) and Pagin and Marsili (2021) for an overview, and to Marsili for a discussion of how “norm of assertion” accounts (à la Williamson 1996) deliver this prediction.
For systematic criterion to both count (13-16) as assertions and acknowledge that they are not merely assertions, see Green and Marsili (2015). I owe this example to a helpful comment by an anonymous referee. Parallel observations have been made in relation to cases in which violating the norm of assertion is intuitively permissible, either because the violation is excusable or because the norm is overridden by other norms or concerns, like considerations of politeness (Williamson, 1996, pp. 489, forthcoming; Reiland, 2021, footnote 17; but see Schechter 2017 and Marsili & Wiegmann 2021, section 5.2 for criticisms)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/mila.12476
Publication Date: 2024-01-28
The Definition of Assertion: Commitment and Truth
Abstract
According to an influential view, asserting a proposition involves undertaking some “commitment” to the truth of that proposition. But accounts of what it is for someone to be committed to the truth of a proposition are often vague or imprecise, and are rarely put to work to define assertion. This paper aims to fill this gap. It offers a precise characterisation of assertoric commitment, and applies it to define assertion. On the proposed view, acquiring commitment is not sufficient for asserting: to assert, commitment must be acquired by explicitly presenting a proposition as true.
1. DEFINING ASSERTION
2. ASSERTION AND COMMITMENT
(CB) Commitment-based account
2.1. Accountability
2.2 Discursive responsibility (DR)
(1) Prospero has brought some Prosecco.
(3) No, Prospero brought a bottle of Chianti.
(4) How do you know?
(5) Is that true?
(a) What makes you think that?
(b) Is that true?
(c) Do you really know that?
with weaker speech acts. To appreciate this point, compare the guess (G) with the assertion (A):
(G) I guess that Luca kissed Mara when they went back home last night
(A) Luca kissed Mara when they went back home last night
(6) I am uttering a sentence
(7) Eat the damn cake!
are redundant, because the speaker has already discharged their discursive responsibilities.
2.3. Twofold commitment
(7) I bet that they’re in bed together right at this moment
of claims that I take to be defensible but false. In this context my interlocutors are entitled to challenge my claims, and expect me to provide arguments in support of their truth: I am discursively responsible for each of these claims, as required by (b). Nonetheless, it would be inappropriate to blame me or criticise me for their falsity: Condition (a) is not satisfied. The example shows that (b) does not entail (a), and that satisfying (b) is not sufficient to make an assertion. More generally, condition (a) and (b) can come apart: each one identifies a different component of the distinctive responsibilities engendered by assertions.
3. A “MIXED” DEFINITION OF ASSERTION
3.1 Explicitly expressing a proposition
(CBD) Commitment-based definition of assertion: A speaker S asserts
3.2 Becoming committed without asserting
(8) I hereby commit myself to the following proposition:
(p) Socrates never existed
4.3 Presenting a proposition as true
(MD) Mixed definition of assertion: A speaker
4. TESTING THE DEFINITION
4.1 Assertions and other speech acts
(9) Leave the cat alone!
(10) Assume that Jeff Bezos is actually a reptilian…
I guess that [Jorge is in the shower]
(14) I deny that [I was present at the scene of the murder]
(15) I object that [I was not present at the scene of the murder]
(16) I insist that [I was not present at the scene of the murder]
(17) I assert that [I was not present at the scene of the murder]
4.2 Excuses and levels of normativity
I loved Josie dearly
[W]hen it is mutually known by all parties that a claim was made under conditions of anonymity, this has a diminishing effect on the sort of (assertio n-generated) expectations that speakers and hearers are entitled to have of one another (Goldberg, 2013, p.135)
accountability plays an important role in sustaining expectations of reliability: The risk of sanctions provides the speaker with a subjective reason to try their best to only assert the truth, and this in turn decreases the frequency of false assertions. This subjective reason will not arise when the anonymous speaker knows that they are not defacto sanctionable, since in these cases speaking falsely de facto comes at no price. When the audience knows that the speaker knows this, they lose a positive reason to trust the speaker (one that is present in ordinary conversations), and this is what undermines (or at least reduces) the audience’s epistemic entitlement to take an anonymous assertor’s word for it.
5. ASSERTION, COMMITMENT, AND TRUTH
commitments are studied both theoretically and empirically (e.g. Holmes, 1984; Kissine, 2008; Geurts, 2019; Mazzarella et al., 2018; Faller, 2019). In sum, the proposed view has the potential to help advance a variety of ongoing scholarly inquiries – in particular in philosophy of language and pragmatics, where talk of assertion is commonplace and this notion often taken for granted, but rarely explained in fine detail.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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Neri Marsili
UNED, Dpto. de Lógica, Historia y Filosofía de la Ciencia
Paseo de Senda del Rey, 7
28040 Madrid | España | Spain
Email: neri@fsof.uned.es
For a discussion of the different connotations that these terms can have in ordinary language, and why these differences are not relevant to theorising about illocutionary force, see Searle and Vanderveken . It is customary for analyses of illocutionary acts to aim at identifying necessary and sufficient conditions. This approach, however, has known limitations (e.g. Rosch 1978; Gupta 2015; Margolis & Laurence 2019, section 2.2, 5.2). While I share some reservations myself, I think that attempting to define assertion in this way can help us better understand this concept, laying some fundamental groundwork for investigating the nature of this speech act and its normative import. Peirce (CP 2.315, 5.29-31,543-547, MS 280.25-26, 517.42-44, 36.104-5); Searle (1969, 1975); Grice (1978, p. 126); Brandom (1983, 1994); Searle & Vanderveken (1985); Green (1999, 2000, 2007, 2017); MacFarlane (2011), Rescorla (2009a); Marsili (2015, 2021); Tanesini (2016, 2019), Peet (2021). With a few exceptions, such as Shapiro (2018), Tanesini (2019), Marsili (2021a); a slightly different distinction is in Green (2007, 2017), an altogether different one is Kissine (2008). For an approach that goes beyond assertoric commitment and that applies across the illocutionary board, see Geurts (2019). This means that other members of the linguistic community are permitted (not obliged) to criticise the speaker for the falsity of their claim. In the rest of the paper, I will sometimes talk of someone being entitled to criticise the speaker, of a criticism being permissible or warranted. These expressions are all meant to track the fact that the criticisms are permissible, given the norms governing the speech act of assertion. By “expectation”, I mean a normative requirement to act in a certain way, comparable to the ones generated by other illocutionary rules. Illocutionary norms are not explicitly agreed-upon rules (unlike the rules of chess or traffic rules), but they are nonetheless implicitly understood, followed and enforced by competent speakers. I elaborate on the status of illocutionary norms and the expectations they generate in Marsili (forthcoming). I am using “show” in a figurative sense, as a shorthand for something like “provides reasons that are good enough to settle that the asserted proposition is true, given the epistemic standards currently accepted in the conversational context” (cf. Rescorla, 2009b). The problem of defining which challenges are appropriate is an independent issue in the literature on discursive commitment: for an overview, Rescorla (2009b). Here I endorsed the view that a challenge to an assertion is appropriate only if it is conveyed by a felicitous question, and that a question felicitous only if its answer is not a settled issue in the conversation. This solution represents a novel approach to a longstanding problem in argumentation theory. For similar reasons, neither accountability nor DR entails that the speaker is obliged to be sincere, or to follow any putative norm of assertion (Rescorla, 2009a): while both kinds of commitments create an agent-dependent reason to be truthful (to avoid sanctions, to be able to meet expectations when challenged), none creates an agent-independent reason to do so. To highlight the difference, MacFarlane (2011) distinguishes between upstream normativity (norms that constrain which actions you are entitled to perform – in our case, which assertions you are entitled to make) and downstream normativity (obligations and entitlements that result from your action – in our case, those falling under the label of “commitments”). It should be noted, however, that some authors (Alston, 2000, chap. 8; Milić, 2015; Reiland, 2020, Section 6) hold that there is a tighter connection between norms of assertion and commitments – for these authors, downstream normativity can be reduced to upstream normativity. - 11 A minority of authors (García-Carpintero, 2018; Viebahn, 2020) allow for indirect assertions. The disagreement here is, I suspect, primarily terminological. I agree that calling some implicata “indirect assertions” may be useful for various theoretical purposes. However, it extends the scope of this term beyond its ordinary meaning, which my definition aims to track.
- 12 My point here is that a definition of assertion need not take a stance on this issue, not that neutrality is a desideratum for its own sake. In fact, some accounts of semantic content will not be apt to define assertion. Theories that define semantic content by appeal to the very notion of assertion (cf. Brandom, 1994) will not do, because this move would lead to circularity. Note, further, that this limitation does not speak against my proposal specifically, for it is shared by any definition that incorporates a criterion to rule out implicata (such as (i) above).
A referee wonders whether condition (i) incorrectly rules in cases in which a speaker produces an utterance without meaning it – as it might happen when an incompetent speaker accidentally produces a meaningful expression in a foreign language. To exclude such cases, condition (ii) can be modified, to require that S undertakes commitment to knowingly and intentionally. However, some theorists want to allow for unintentional assertions (e.g. Kölbel, 2010; cf. Dummett, 1973; 1979, p. 111), and more generally for unintentional performance of any illocutionary act (for a recent overview, McDonald, 2021). I will not take a stance on the matter here, but an additional clause (e.g. knowingly and intentionally) can easily be incorporated into CBD, if deemed appropriate. See Marsili and Green (2021) for elaboration. Here I am treating “putting forward as true” and “presenting as true” as synonymous.
Some theorists (e.g. Barker, 2004; Hanks, 2007; Reiland, 2019; Bronzo, 2021) who reject the force/content distinction deny this. Broadly, they hold that since a proposition involves an act of predication, it can be correct and incorrect. This view, however, is somewhat unorthodox (for objections, see e.g. Green, 2018), and the literature on the nature of assertion tends to operate within the framework that I am adopting (see Marsili & Pagin, 2021). Furthermore, even if we were to accept this unorthodox view, it would at most render the extra requirement redundant (condition (i) would already entail that the content is “presented as true”). The definition would still draw the right distinctions, and correctly differentiate between assertions and other speech acts, by means of the commitment condition. Following Green (2017, 2019) and Marsili (2018a, pp. 464-5), correctness and success are here regarded as properties of the speech act. This is not to deny that these notions apply to speakers too. If Bob falsely claims that Gianni is drunk, his assertion (the act) is incorrect. But we can also derivatively say, of Bob, that he was incorrect or wrong about Gianni’s state. Presenting as true is here characterised in reference to the first sense, or incorrectness of the act: to present as true is to perform a speech act that we would call “incorrect” if is false, and that we would call “correct” (and successful) only if is true. Similarly for the notion of success: what matters is whether the assertion meets its presumed goal (describing reality), not whether it meets the goal of the speaker (which might be different, e.g. telling a lie).
For elaboration, see Green (2017) on “liability” and Marsili 2018 on assertoric aims and success-conditions. Wright (1992, p. 24) claims that it is a platitude that assertions present their content as true. Perhaps, defenders of “simple commitment views” did not include this requirement in their definitions simply because it is platitudinous (cf. Marsili & Green 2021, p.26). This might be, but the addition proposed here would still be significant: it brings to light an important requirement that is otherwise left implicit, and shows how it can handle the objections raised by Pagin (2004, 2009).
A referee wonders if the “presenting as true” condition makes the accountability requirement redundant. Pagin’s example shows that the two notions are not coextensive: the speaker of (8) is accountable for a proposition they have not presented as true. Still, it might be that whenever you present a proposition as true, you are accountable for it. This conjecture has some plausibility. If it is correct, the accountability requirement could in principle be excised from the definition without threatening its intensional adequacy. But this would not make MD any simpler (since “accountability” is required only indirectly, through condition (iii)), and the analysis of commitment provided in Section 2 would be no less valuable, since both conditions are still needed if one aims to characterise assertoric commitment. Some other challenges would be warranted in this context, such as “Why did you make that conjecture?” or “What makes you think that?”. Indeed, virtually every speech act warrants challenges of this kind, but this is beyond the point. Only the availability of challenges to the veracity of the speaker’s claim is evidence that the speaker is discursively responsible, as discussed in Section 2.2
For more on the relationship between assertion and other representative speech acts, see Searle (1976, pp. 5,10), Searle and Vanderveken (1985), and Labinaz (2018), who consider how different representative illocutions yield different degrees of commitment. For how commitment accounts can handle hedges and mitigation, see for example Coates (1987) and Krifka (2019). I discuss these matters in Marsili (2014, pp. 165-7, 2015, pp. 124-5, 2018b, pp. 179-180, 2021a, pp. 3262-3). Note that “How do you know?” challenges are “redundant” in this context, given that the answer is already common ground. But this does not mean that DR is not satisfied (see Section 2.2).
Here “directly” is opposed to “indirect” illocutions, like implicatures and indirect speech acts, cf. Searle and Vanderveken (1985, pp. 129-30). See also Lewiński (2021). By saying that they are functionally equivalent, I simply mean that an ordinary speaker would regard them as communicating pretty much the same thing. This is not to say that these expressions are fully equivalent, for they are not (see Ripley, 2011).
In fact, I am not aware of any existing definition that gives this verdict – nor of one that, unlike mine, would not classify (13-16) as assertions. Reviewing each existing account to prove this point would lead us astray, but the reader can refer to MacFarlane (2011) and Pagin and Marsili (2021) for an overview, and to Marsili for a discussion of how “norm of assertion” accounts (à la Williamson 1996) deliver this prediction.
For systematic criterion to both count (13-16) as assertions and acknowledge that they are not merely assertions, see Green and Marsili (2015). I owe this example to a helpful comment by an anonymous referee. Parallel observations have been made in relation to cases in which violating the norm of assertion is intuitively permissible, either because the violation is excusable or because the norm is overridden by other norms or concerns, like considerations of politeness (Williamson, 1996, pp. 489, forthcoming; Reiland, 2021, footnote 17; but see Schechter 2017 and Marsili & Wiegmann 2021, section 5.2 for criticisms)