DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2023.104949
تاريخ النشر: 2024-01-15
تركيز عدسة النظام البيئي على دراسات الابتكار
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توجيه عدسة النظام البيئي نحو دراسات الابتكار
معلومات المقال
الكلمات المفتاحية:
المنصات
خلق القيمة
استحواذ القيمة
التكامل
حوكمة النظام البيئي
الملخص
على مدى ما يقرب من قرن، تم الاعتراف بالدور الرئيسي للابتكار في النمو الاقتصادي ودراسته. اليوم، يتم فهم الابتكارات بشكل متزايد على أنها متجذرة في أنظمة بيئية من الفاعلين المستقلين، سواء كانت شركات أو منظمات أخرى أو أفراد. يساهم هؤلاء الفاعلون بطرق تكاملية لإنشاء عرض قيمة أكبر من مجموع الأجزاء، مع دمج منتجاتهم وعملياتهم التي تجعلها ممكنة من خلال واجهات معيارية بين الفاعلين. هنا نستعرض ظهور عدسة النظام البيئي ضمن دراسات الابتكار في سياق العدد الخاص حول أنظمة الابتكار وابتكار النظام البيئي. بعد تلخيص تاريخ العدد الخاص، نستعرض المقالات التسعة في العدد الخاص ونظهر كيف ترتبط بتعريف الفاعلين، وخلق القيمة المشتركة من قبل الفاعلين، وتنسيق الفاعلين، واستحواذ القيمة من قبل الفاعلين، ثم القضية الكبيرة لتحليل الأنظمة البيئية كوحدة تحليل. من هذا، نقدم اقتراحات للبحث المستقبلي في النظام البيئي، بما في ذلك الفرص لدمج عدسة النظام البيئي مع عدسات أخرى مستخدمة في دراسات الابتكار، وطرق جديدة لدراسة ظواهر النظام البيئي.
1. المقدمة
وصانعو السياسات الآن بشكل متزايد إلى الابتكارات على أنها متجذرة في أنظمة بيئية تتكون من فاعلين مستقلين، بما في ذلك الأفراد والشركات ومنظمات أخرى مثل الجامعات والوكالات العامة. يخلق أعضاء النظام البيئي منتجات وأنظمة تكون قيمتها أكبر من مجموع أجزائها المنفصلة. ثم يستحوذ كل عضو على جزء من “الفائض التكميلي” الناتج – الفرق بين القيمة المشتركة التي أنشأها الجميع ومجموع القيم التي يمكنهم إنشاؤها بشكل منفصل. (تتكون الأنظمة البيئية في العلوم الاجتماعية من فاعلين فرديين وأنواع مختلفة من المنظمات. وهي متميزة عن الأنظمة البيئية “الطبيعية” المكونة من الكائنات الحية والأنواع.)
2. دمج عدسة النظام البيئي ضمن دراسات الابتكار
2.1. تاريخ موجز لدراسات الابتكار
2.2. عدسة النظام البيئي في دراسات الابتكار
المكملون (مطورو تطبيقات البرمجيات) ومستخدمي آيفون.
تمكن الهياكل المودولارية الفاعلين الذين لديهم روابط تنظيمية قليلة جداً من اتخاذ إجراءات تكاملية، لكنها يمكن أن تكون أيضاً عرضة للاختناقات في الأداء في مواقع مختلفة (إيثيراج، 2007؛ أدنر وكابور، 2010؛ بالدوين، 2018؛ هانا وآيزنهاوردت، 2018؛ كابور، 2018). لهذا السبب، يجب الاعتراف بالاعتماد المتبادل في نظام مودولاري وإدارته بشكل صريح من خلال أشكال مختلفة من الحوكمة، مثل المعايير، والقيود على الوصول، أو التفاوض بالإضافة إلى المعاملات والعقود (شتاودنماير وآخرون، 2005؛ كابور ولي، 2013). في نظام بيئي، من غير المرجح أن تكون خيارات الحوكمة ثنائية تشمل فاعلين اثنين، ومن المرجح أن تكون متعددة الأطراف، تشمل مجموعة من الفاعلين وتسهيلها من قبل منسق مركزي (أدنر، 2017؛ أوزونكا وآخرون، 2022).
2.3. إطار لبحث النظام البيئي
- الاستقلالية: الفاعلون في النظام البيئي هم منظمات وأفراد مستقلون. وبالتالي، فإنهم يخضعون لحوكمة موزعة والتقاط القيمة.
- التكامل: يساهم الفاعلون بطرق تكاملية في عرض القيمة المحوري. القيمة المشتركة التي يتم إنشاؤها بواسطة النظام بأكمله أكبر من مجموع قيم الأجزاء المنفصلة.
- الوحدات: المنتجات والعمليات في النظام البيئي هي وحدات ضمن بنية تقنية أكبر.
مجرد مجموع قيمها المنفصلة.
إذا كانت مجموعة من الفاعلين تلبي جميع الشروط الثلاثة، فإنها تتأهل كنظام بيئي ضمن هذا الإطار. من بين جميع الأنظمة البيئية، من المفيد أيضًا التمييز بين الأنظمة البيئية المنصة وغير المنصة. يتم تنسيق الأنظمة البيئية المنصة بواسطة محور مركزي واحد أو أكثر (المنصات). تستخدم الأنظمة البيئية غير المنصة وسائل تنسيق أخرى، بما في ذلك المعاملات الثنائية والعقود، والاتفاقيات متعددة الأطراف التي تنظمها “المنسقون”، والروابط المؤقتة التي تنظمها “مكاملات الأنظمة” (كريتشمر وآخرون، 2022؛ جاكوبيدس وآخرون، 2024؛ بالدوين، 2024، الفصل 3).
مقارنة سمات النظام البيئي.
| نظام بيئي للابتكار | نظام بيئي للمنصة | نظام بيئي ريادي | نظام بيئي للمعرفة | |
| مصدر إنشاء القيمة | ابتكار محوري | منصة محورية | ريادة أعمال إنتاجية | معرفة جديدة |
| الفاعلون النموذجيون | المبتكرون، الموردون، المساهمون | مالك(و) المنصة، المساهمون | رواد الأعمال، الممولون، منظمات البحث، المسرعات | الجامعات، معاهد البحث، الشركات، الوكالات الحكومية |
| التفاعل الأساسي | التدفقات التكنولوجية ومدخلات-مخرجات | التدفقات التكنولوجية والأسواق متعددة الجوانب | تدفقات المعرفة والموارد | تدفقات المعرفة |
| الرابط مع دراسات الابتكار | الابتكار والتغيير التكنولوجي | الابتكار من قبل مالكي المنصات، والمكملين | مجموعات الابتكار والأنظمة الإقليمية | تدفقات المعرفة بين الجامعات والصناعة |
3. حول العدد الخاص

المصدر: إجمالي 12,794 مقالة مدرجة في سكوبس من 1993 إلى 2022 تحتوي على مجال موضوعي يتضمن “بزنس” وعنوان أو ملخص أو كلمات مفتاحية تحتوي على “نظام بيئي” أو “أنظمة بيئية”.
ملخص مقالات العدد الخاص.
| المؤلفون | عنوان | السياق التجريبي | نوع النظام البيئي |
| بورنر وآخرون (2023) | مسار آخر للتكامل: كيف يحدد المستخدمون والوسطاء ويخلقون تركيبات جديدة في نظم الابتكار | منتجات المنزل الذكي | نظام الابتكار، مع كل من المنصات والوسطاء، منسق بواسطة أدوات العمل |
| كوزولينو وجايجر (2024) | تعطيل النظام البيئي والموقف التنظيمي: استراتيجيات دخول منسقي ومكملات الشركات الناشئة في الصحة الرقمية | شركات ناشئة في تكنولوجيا المعلومات الصحية | نظام الابتكار، وليس قائمًا على المنصات |
| جاكوبيديس وآخرون (2024) | الآثار الخارجية والتكاملات في المنصات والأنظمة البيئية: من الحلول الهيكلية إلى الفشل الداخلي | نظرية | منصات الابتكار، منصات المعاملات، جميع نظم الأعمال (ليس فقط نظم الابتكار) |
| كوان وغرب (2023) | الواجهات، التعديل، وظهور النظام البيئي: كيف قامت DARPA بتعديل نظام أشباه الموصلات | أشباه الموصلات بدون مصانع | نظام بيئي مبتكر متعدد الأطراف من تنسيق DARPA |
| ميرك وجيبسِن (2023) | كيف تؤثر المنافسة على الجهود الابتكارية داخل نظام بيئي قائم على المنصات؟ مقارنة بين المساهمين المدفوعين وغير المدفوعين | تطبيقات آيفون المجانية مقابل المدفوعة | نظام الابتكار القائم على المنصات |
| بوجاداس وآخرون (2024) | دور القيمة والتكوين لواجهات برمجة التطبيقات على الويب في نظم الابتكار الرقمي: حالة نظام السفر عبر الإنترنت | مواقع شراء السفر عبر الإنترنت | نظام بيئي معقد مع منصات متعددة |
| رايتر وآخرون (2024) | إدارة أنظمة الابتكار متعددة المستويات | صناعة البنوك الأوروبية | مقارنة بين خمسة أنظمة ابتكار قائمة على المنصات |
| سونغ وآخرون (2024) | من الفضول المبكر إلى شبكة الفضاء الواسعة: ظهور نظام ابتكار الأقمار الصناعية الصغيرة | الأقمار الصناعية الصغيرة | نظام بيئي للابتكار متعدد الأطراف، يتم تنسيقه بواسطة “الجهات الأساسية” التي تقوم باستثمارات متخصصة |
| فان دايك وآخرون (2024) | من المنتج إلى المنصة: كيف تشكل افتراضات واختيارات الشركات القائمة استراتيجيتها للمنصة | مصنعي المعدات الزراعية | مقارنة بين نظامي ابتكار قائمين على المنصات |
4. المواضيع في العدد الخاص
4.1. من هم الفاعلون في النظام البيئي؟
منظمي الرعاية الصحية على التوالي – يمكن أن تلعب دورًا حاسمًا في إجبار الشركات القائمة على تغيير استراتيجياتها وتمكين فرص الدخول للشركات الناشئة المبتكرة.
4.2. كيف يتم إنشاء القيمة المشتركة؟
حول قيمة العرض. وبالمثل، يقارن فان دايك وآخرون الطرق التي اتبعتها شركتان راسختان في صناعة المعدات الزراعية العالمية في اتباع استراتيجيات مختلفة لإدارة الابتكارات التكميلية. أدت استراتيجياتهما المتباينة إلى نتائج مختلفة تمامًا من حيث الكمية وطبيعة التطبيقات المقدمة من قبل المساهمين الخارجيين.
4.3. كيف يتم تنسيق أعضاء النظام البيئي؟
النظم البيئية التي تُرى في صناعة الكمبيوتر.
أخيرًا، عند النظر في قضايا مثل الحوكمة، خلق القيمة، أو الحوافز، كانت الأبحاث السابقة تميل إلى التمييز بين أنواع مختلفة من الفاعلين بناءً على موقعهم الهيكلي داخل النظام البيئي، والذي يُعرف عادةً بأنه الشركة المحورية، المورد أو المكمل (على سبيل المثال، أدنر وكابور، 2010؛ داتي وآخرون، 2018). ومع ذلك، توضح مقالتان في العدد الخاص (رايتير وآخرون، سونغ وآخرون) كيف أن الاختلافات في الأفعال والاستراتيجية في نظام بيئي قد لا تكون دائمًا مدفوعة بموقع الفاعلين الهيكلي. على سبيل المثال، قد تكون الحوافز والمساهمات في القيمة متشابهة بين الموردين والمكملين في شريحة عملاء واحدة، بينما تكون غير متشابهة عبر شريحة عملاء مختلفة. وبالتالي، قد تبحث الأبحاث المستقبلية في الاعتماد المتبادل بين الفاعلين باستخدام تعريفات أكثر أساسية للتكامل، مثل تطبيق ملاحظة ميلغرام وروبرتس (1995) بأن المقياس النهائي للتكامل هو عندما يؤدي غياب المكمل إلى تقليل قيمة العرض.
4.4. من الذي يلتقط القيمة في نظام بيئي وكيف؟
4.5. النظم البيئية كوحدة تحليل
سؤالان رئيسيان: (1) من أين تأتي النظم البيئية؟ و (2) لماذا تتغير؟ كانت إحدى النتائج الشائعة في عدة مقالات هي أن النظم البيئية قد تُنشأ لبدء استراتيجية خلق القيمة لشركة ربحية أو جهة تنظيمية. وبالتالي، يصف كوان وويست تاريخ واجهة رئيسية مكنت من التخصص العمودي داخل صناعة أشباه الموصلات. تم تصميم الواجهة من قبل باحثين أكاديميين ممولين من الحكومة الذين توقعوا أن تقسيم تصميمات الرقائق إلى وحدات سيسمح بتحسين أداء الرقائق بمعدل يتماشى مع ما تنبأ به قانون مور. بدعم من DARPA، نشأت نظام بيئي ثلاثي يتكون من صانعي أدوات EDA، ومصممي الرقائق بدون مصانع، ومصانع أشباه الموصلات، وأصبح تنافسياً مع الشركات المصنعة للأجهزة المتكاملة الراسخة مثل إنتل (بالدوين، 2024، الفصل 8).
5. مستقبل أبحاث النظم البيئية
5.1. المنظورات المتقاربة في دراسات الابتكار
5.1.1. نماذج الأعمال
5.1.2. الابتكار المفتوح
5.1.3. اتحادات البحث، ومنظمات وضع المعايير، ومشاريع المصدر المفتوح
هيكلها وعضويتها أكثر سيولة.
لقد كانت الأبحاث السابقة تميل إلى التركيز على الحوكمة على مستوى واحد ولكن ليس على كلا هذين المستويين من التنظيم. يمكن أن تعترف الأبحاث المستقبلية بالعلاقة الهرمية بين النظام البيئي الأكبر وهذه المنظمات ذات الأغراض الخاصة، وتفحص تفاعلها. على سبيل المثال، متى تقيد معايير النظام البيئي الأكبر سياسات الهيئة الحاكمة المركزية؟ ومتى تؤثر الهيئة المركزية على اتجاه الابتكار في النظام البيئي الأكبر؟ لقد تم دراسة هذه القضايا في سياق مشاريع البرمجيات مفتوحة المصدر والمجتمعات، ولكن ليس في النظم البيئية الابتكارية بشكل عام.
5.1.4. الملكية الفكرية (IP)
5.1.5. القدرات التنظيمية
5.1.6. الأنظمة البيئية الريادية والإقليمية
النظام البيئي لتطوير الآخر.
5.1.7. أنظمة المعرفة
5.2. رؤى جديدة من طرق جديدة
6. الخاتمة
بيان مساهمة المؤلفين
إعلان عن تضارب المصالح
توفر البيانات
شكر وتقدير
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E-mail address: dr.joel.west@gmail.com (J. West).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2023.104949
Publication Date: 2024-01-15
Focusing the ecosystem lens on innovation studies
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Focusing the ecosystem lens on innovation studies
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Platforms
Value creation
Value capture
Complementarity
Ecosystem governance
Abstract
For nearly a century, the key role of innovation in economic growth has been acknowledged and studied. Today, innovations are increasingly understood as being embedded in ecosystems of autonomous actors, whether firms, other organizations, or individuals. These actors contribute in complementary ways to create a value proposition that is greater than the sum of the parts, with the integration of their products and processes made possible by modular interfaces between actors. Here we review the emergence of the ecosystem lens within innovation studies in the context of the Special Issue on Innovation Ecosystems and Ecosystem Innovation. After summarizing the history of the special issue, we review the nine articles in the special issue and show how they relate to defining the actors, joint value creation by the actors, coordinating the actors, value capture by the actors, and then the large issue of analyzing ecosystems as the unit of analysis. From this, we offer suggestions for future ecosystem research, including opportunities to combine the ecosystem lens with other lenses used in innovation studies, and new methods for studying ecosystem phenomena.
1. Introduction
and policymakers now increasingly view innovations as embedded in ecosystems made up of autonomous actors, including individuals, firms and other organizations such as universities and public agencies. Members of an ecosystem create products and systems whose value is greater than the sum of their separate parts. Each member then captures a part of the resulting “complementary surplus” – the difference between the joint value created by all and the sum of the values they could create separately. (Ecosystems in the social sciences are made up of individual actors and various kinds of organizations. They are distinct from “natural” ecosystems made up of organisms and species.)
2. Incorporating an ecosystem lens within innovation studies
2.1. A brief history of innovation studies
2.2. The ecosystem lens in innovation studies
complementors (application software developers), and iPhone users.
Modular architectures enable actors with very few organizational ties to take complementary actions, but they can also be subject to performance bottlenecks at different locations (Ethiraj, 2007; Adner and Kapoor, 2010; Baldwin, 2018; Hannah and Eisenhardt, 2018; Kapoor, 2018). For this reason, the interdependencies in a modular system must be explicitly recognized and managed through different forms of governance, e.g., via standards, restrictions on access, or negotiation as well as transactions and contracts (Staudenmayer et al., 2005; Kapoor and Lee, 2013). In an ecosystem, governance choices are less likely to be bilateral involving two actors and more likely to be multilateral, involving a group of actors and facilitated by a focal orchestrator (Adner, 2017; Uzunca et al., 2022).
2.3. A framework for ecosystem research
- Autonomy: The actors in the ecosystem are autonomous organizations and individuals. As such, they are subject to distributed governance and value capture.
- Complementarity: The actors contribute in complementary ways to a focal value proposition. The joint value created by the whole system is greater than the sum of the values of the separate parts.
- Modularity: The products and processes in the ecosystem are modules within a larger technical architecture.
simply the sum of their separate values.
If a group of actors satisfies all three conditions, they qualify as an ecosystem within this framework. Among all ecosystems, it is also useful to distinguish between platform ecosystems and non-platform ecosystems. Platform ecosystems are coordinated by one or more central hubs (platforms). Non-platform ecosystems use other means of coordination, including bilateral transactions and contracts, multilateral agreements arranged by “orchestrators,” and temporary linkages organized by “system integrators” (Kretschmer et al., 2022; Jacobides et al., 2024; Baldwin, 2024, Ch. 3).
Comparing ecosystem attributes.
| Innovation ecosystem | Platform ecosystem | Entrepreneurial ecosystem | Knowledge ecosystem | |
| Source of value creation | Focal innovation | Focal platform | Productive entrepreneurship | Novel knowledge |
| Typical actors | Innovators, Suppliers, Complementors | Platform owner(s), Complementors | Entrepreneurs, Funders, Research Organizations, Accelerators | Universities, research institutes, firms, government agencies |
| Primary Interaction | Technological and inputoutput flows | Technological and multi-sided markets | Knowledge and resource flows | Knowledge flows |
| Link with Innovation studies | Innovation and technological change | Innovation by platform owners, complementors | Innovation clusters and regional ecosystems | University-industry knowledge flows |
3. About the special issue

Source: A total of 12,794 Scopus-indexed articles from 1993 to 2022 that have a Subject Area containing “busi” and Title, Abstract or Keywords that contain “ecosystem” or “ecosystems”.
Summary of special issue articles.
| Authors | Title | Empirical context | Type of ecosystem |
| Borner et al. (2023) | Another pathway to complementarity: How users and intermediaries identify and create new combinations in innovation ecosystems | Smart home products | Innovation ecosystem, w/ both platforms and intermediaries, coordinated by toolkits |
| Cozzolino and Geiger (2024) | Ecosystem disruption and regulatory positioning: Entry strategies of digital health startup orchestrators and complementors | Healthcare IT startups | Innovation ecosystem, not platform-based |
| Jacobides et al. (2024) | Externalities and complementarities in platforms and ecosystems: From structural solutions to eendogenous failures | Theory | Innovation platforms, transaction platforms, all business ecosystems (not only innovation ecosystems) |
| Kuan and West (2023) | Interfaces, modularity and ecosystem emergence: How DARPA modularized the semiconductor ecosystem | Fabless semiconductors | Multilateral innovation ecosystem orchestrated by DARPA |
| Miric and Jeppesen (2023) | How does competition influence innovative effort within a platform-based ecosystem? Contrasting paid and unpaid contributors | Free vs. paid iPhone apps | Platform-based innovation ecosystem |
| Pujadas et al. (2024) | The value and structuring role of web APIs in digital innovation ecosystems: The case of the online travel ecosystem | Online travel purchase sites | Complex ecosystem with multiple platforms |
| Reiter et al. (2024) | Managing multi-tiered innovation ecosystems | European banking industry | Comparison of five platform-based innovation ecosystems |
| Song et al. (2024) | From early curiosity to space wide web: The emergence of the small satellite innovation ecosystem | Small satellites | Multilateral innovation ecosystem, orchestrated by “core actors” making specialized investments |
| van Dyck et al. (2024) | From product to platform: How incumbents’ assumptions and choices shape their platform strategy | Agricultural equipment manufacturers | Comparison of two nascent platformbased innovation ecosystems |
4. Themes in the special issue
4.1. Who are the actors in an ecosystem?
healthcare regulators respectively – can play a crucial role both in forcing incumbents to change strategies and enabling entry opportunities for innovative startups.
4.2. How is joint value created?
about the value proposition. Similarly, van Dyck et al. contrast the ways in which two established incumbents in the global agricultural equipment industry pursued different strategies for managing complementary innovations. Their divergent strategies resulted in very different results for both the quantity and nature of the applications provided by thirdparty complementors.
4.3. How are ecosystem members coordinated?
ecosystems seen in the computer industry.
Finally, when considering issues such as governance, value creation, or incentives, prior research has tended to distinguish between different types of actors based on their structural position within the ecosystem typically defined as focal firm, supplier or complementor (e.g., Adner and Kapoor, 2010; Dattée et al., 2018). However, two articles in the special issue (Reiter et al., Song et al.) illustrate how differences in actions and strategy in an ecosystem may not always be driven by structural position of the actors. For example, the incentives and contributions to value may be similar between suppliers and complementors in one customer segment, while dissimilar across a different customer segment. Future research might thus examine interdependence between actors using more fundamental definitions of complementarity, such as by applying Milgrom and Roberts’ (1995) observation that the ultimate measure of complementarity is when absence of the complementor reduces the value of the offering.
4.4. Who captures value in an ecosystem and how?
4.5. Ecosystems as the unit of analysis
two key questions: (1) where do ecosystems come from? and (2) why do they change? A common finding in several articles was that ecosystems may be created to jump-start the value creation strategy of a for-profit firm or a regulator. Thus, Kuan & West describe the history of a key interface that enabled vertical specialization within the semiconductor industry. The interface was prototyped by government-funded academic researchers who predicted that the modularization of chip designs would allow chip performance to continue to improve at the rate predicted by Moore’s Law. With DARPA’s backing, a tripartite ecosystem made up of EDA toolmakers, fabless chip designers, and semiconductor foundries arose and became competitive with established integrated device manufacturers like Intel (Baldwin, 2024, Ch. 8).
5. The future of ecosystem research
5.1. Convergent perspectives in innovation studies
5.1.1. Business models
5.1.2. Open innovation
5.1.3. Research consortia, standards-setting organizations, and open source projects
structure and membership are more fluid.
Prior research has tended to focus on governance at one but not both of these levels of organization. Future research could recognize the hierarchical relation between the larger ecosystem and these specialpurpose organizations, and examine their interaction. For example, when do the norms of the larger ecosystem constrain the policies of the central governing body? And when does the center affect the direction of innovation of the larger ecosystem? These issues have been studied in the context of open source software projects and communities, but not in innovation ecosystems more generally.
5.1.4. Intellectual property (IP)
5.1.5. Organizational capabilities
5.1.6. Entrepreneurial and regional ecosystems
ecosystem can enable, constrain or accelerate the development of the other.
5.1.7. Knowledge ecosystems
5.2. New insights from new methods
6. Conclusion
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Declaration of competing interest
Data availability
Acknowledgements
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- Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dr.joel.west@gmail.com (J. West).
